· The global telecom towers market was valued at thousand units in , and it is projected to be thousand units by , registering a CAGR of · Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) translates emissions and resource extractions into a limited number of environmental impact scores by means of so-called characterisation factors. There are two mainstream ways to derive characterisation factors, i.e. at midpoint level and at endpoint level. To further progress LCIA method development, we updated the ReCiPe method to its Rollei (German pronunciation:) was a German manufacturer of optical instruments founded in by Paul Franke [] and Reinhold Heidecke [] in Braunschweig, Lower Saxony, and maker of the Rolleiflex and Rolleicord series of cameras. Later products included specialty and nostalgic type films for the photo hobbyist market. Originally named Werkstatt für Feinmechanik und Optik, Franke & Heidecke
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Life cycle impact assessment LCIA translates emissions and resource extractions into a limited number of environmental impact scores by means of so-called characterisation factors. There are two mainstream ways to derive characterisation factors, i.
at midpoint level and at endpoint level. To further progress LCIA method development, we updated the ReCiPe method to its version of This paper provides an overview of the key elements of the ReCiPe method. We implemented human health, ecosystem quality and resource scarcity as three areas of protection. Endpoint characterisation factors, directly related to the areas of protection, were derived from midpoint characterisation factors with a constant mid-to-endpoint factor per impact category.
We included 17 midpoint impact categories. The update of ReCiPe provides characterisation factors that are representative for the global scale instead of the European scale, while maintaining the possibility for a number of impact categories to implement characterisation factors at a country and continental scale. We also expanded the number of environmental interventions and added impacts of water use on human health, impacts of water use and climate change on freshwater ecosystems and impacts of water use and tropospheric ozone formation on terrestrial ecosystems as novel damage pathways.
Although significant effort has been put into the update of ReCiPe, there is still major improvement potential in the way impact pathways are modelled. Further improvements relate to a regionalisation of more impact categories, moving from local to global species extinction and adding more impact pathways. Life cycle impact assessment is a fast evolving field of research. ReCiPe provides a state-of-the-art method to convert life cycle inventories to a limited number of life cycle impact scores on midpoint and endpoint level.
Life cycle impact assessment LCIA supports interpretation of LCA studies by translating emissions and resource extractions into single party braunschweig 2015 limited number of environmental impact scores Hauschild and Huijbregts This is done by means of so-called characterisation factors, which indicate the environmental impact per unit of stressor e.
per kg of resource extracted or emission released, single party braunschweig 2015. Characterisation factors at the midpoint level are located somewhere along the cause-impact pathway, typically at the point after which the environmental mechanism is identical for each environmental flow assigned to that impact category Goedkoop et al. Characterisation factors at endpoint level typically reflect damage at one of three areas of protection which are human health, ecosystem quality and resource scarcity.
The two approaches are complementary in that the midpoint characterisation single party braunschweig 2015 a stronger relation to the environmental flows and comes in general with lower parameter uncertainty, while the endpoint characterisation is single party braunschweig 2015 to interpret in terms of relevance of the environmental flows Hauschild and Huijbregts Recently, Hauschild et al. This consensus work had a significant influence on the establishment of LCIA in the environmental policy arena in Europe, e.
via its testing in the Product and Organisational Environmental Footprint initiative EC The review, however, also provided insight into a number of shortcomings of the models used to derive characterisation factors recommended by Hauschild et al. First of all, most models have a continental focus, particularly focussing on Europe, single party braunschweig 2015. Moreover, for many impact categories at the endpoint level, single party braunschweig 2015, the best among existing characterisation models was still not considered sufficiently mature for recommendation.
To further progress LCIA methods beyond the current consensus state of the art, single party braunschweig 2015, we updated the ReCiPe method to its version of ReCiPe provides a harmonised implementation of cause-effect pathways for the calculation of both midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors Goedkoop et al.
Single party braunschweig 2015 order to make a step forward in overcoming the shortcomings mentioned above, the update of ReCiPe focused on 1 providing characterisation factors that are representative for the global scale, while maintaining the possibility for a number of impact categories to implement characterisation factors at a country and continental scale and 2 improving the methods applied to model midpoint-to-endpoint factors.
Compared to ReCiPe, we added the following extra damage pathways in ReCiPe For a number of impact categories, single party braunschweig 2015, we also provide midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors on a country level, single party braunschweig 2015, i.
for photochemical ozone formation, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication and water use. We followed the model framework proposed in ReCiPe with human health, ecosystem quality and resource scarcity as areas of protection.
The unit for human heath damage, DALYs disability adjusted life yearsrepresents the years that are lost or that a person is disabled due to a disease or accident. To aggregate the impacts of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems into one single unit species. yearwe included species densities for these three types of ecosystems in the same way as proposed by Goedkoop et al.
Endpoint characterisation factors CFe are derived from midpoint characterisation factors CFm with a constant mid-to-endpoint factor per impact category:. Where a denotes the area of protection, i. These mid-to-endpoint factors are constant per impact category, because environmental mechanisms are considered to be identical for each stressor after the midpoint impact location on the cause-effect pathway.
Figure 1 shows the link between the environmental mechanisms, i. the 17 midpoint impact categories, single party braunschweig 2015, and the three areas of protection, i. the endpoints, as included in ReCiPe Overview of the impact categories that are covered in the ReCiPe method and their relation to the areas of protection. The dotted single party braunschweig 2015 means there is no constant mid-to-endpoint factor for fossil resources.
The models should maintain consistency between the modelling of different impact categories, particularly relevant for toxicity. In case of multiple suitable global models, we prefer models that can be run in-house by the ReCiPe consortium, single party braunschweig 2015.
We performed a review of the existing literature within and outside the field of LCIA to select a preferred combination of environmental models and databases per midpoint impact category, single party braunschweig 2015. We also selected models that were able to quantify damage pathways relevant for the mid-to-endpoint factors. For a number of impact categories, notably fine particulate matter formation, photochemical ozone formation, land use and water use, there is a fast increasing number of global models published in the literature.
Here, we pragmatically selected the models that we were able to run within the consortium without claiming that ReCiPe is necessarily superior compared to other global models out there.
Different sources of uncertainty and different methodological choices were grouped into three scenarios. This means that ReCiPe does not provide one set, but three sets of midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors and users are encouraged to use all three of them for a sensitivity check of their LCA results. One prominent choice is the time horizon for long living pollutants.
We included a year, years and year-infinite time horizon in each scenario, respectively. The time horizon for the third scenario was not always infinite, as not all the environmental models provided sufficient information to model steady-state conditions. Another important value choice included was the level of evidence available for the environmental effects considered for the impacts related to ozone depletion, single party braunschweig 2015, ionising radiation, toxicity, fine particulate matter formation and water use.
We coupled effects with only a very high level of evidence to a year time horizon and all reported effects to a infinite time horizon to construct single party braunschweig 2015 extreme scenarios.
The third scenario refers to a middle ground with a year time horizon consistently included and single party braunschweig 2015 with a level of evidence that is considered acceptable by international bodies, such as the World Health Organisation. More details on the scenario building can be found in Huijbregts et al. Impact categories and their indicators at the midpoint level are summarised in Table 1 and briefly explained below.
The single party braunschweig 2015 list of midpoint characterisation factors single party braunschweig 2015 available in spreadsheet format see Electronic Supplementary Material.
The midpoint characterisation factor selected for climate change is the widely used single party braunschweig 2015 warming potential GWPwhich quantifies the integrated infrared radiative forcing increase of a greenhouse gas GHGexpressed in kg CO 2 -eq IPCC ; Joos et al. The ozone depleting single party braunschweig 2015 ODPexpressed in kg CFC equivalents, was used as characterisation factor on the midpoint level.
ODPs refer to a time-integrated decrease in stratospheric ozone concentration over an infinite time horizon WMO The collective dose resulting from the emission of a radionuclide is the point where the characterisation factor at midpoint level was derived. The midpoint characterisation factor, single party braunschweig 2015, called ionising radiation potential IRPis reported in Cobalt eq to air.
For the midpoint characterisation factors of fine particulate matter formation, the human population intake of PM 2. Particulate matter formation potentials PMFP are expressed in kg primary PM 2.
The change in ambient concentration of PM 2. For the midpoint characterisation factors of photochemical ozone formation related to human exposure, the human population intake of ozone was considered. Human health ozone formation potential HOFP is expressed in kg NO x -eq. The change in ambient concentration of ozone after the emission of a precursor nitrogen oxides NO x or non-methane volatile organic compounds NMVOC was predicted with the emission—concentration sensitivities matrices for emitted precursors from the global source-receptor model TM5-FASST Van Zelm et al.
For the midpoint characterisation factors of acidifying emissions, the fate of a pollutant in the atmosphere and the soil as calculated by Roy et al. Acidification potentials AP are expressed in kg SO 2 -equivalents. Changes in acid deposition, following changes in air emission of NO xNH 3 and SO 2were calculated with the GEOS-Chem model Roy et al.
Subsequently, the change in acidity in the soil due to a change in acid deposition was derived with the geochemical steady-state model PROFILE Roy et al. The fate of phosphorus forms the basis of the midpoint characterisation factors for freshwater eutrophication. Freshwater eutrophication potentials FEP are expressed in kg P to freshwater-equivalents. Global fate factors for phosphorus emissions to freshwater were taken from Helmes et al.
The fate and effects of chemical emissions expressed in kg 1,4-dichlorobenzene-equivalents 1,4DCB-eq was used as characterisation factor at the midpoint level for human toxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, marine ecotoxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity.
We used the global multimedia fate, exposure and effects model USES-LCA 2. The ecotoxicological effect factor represents the change in PDF of species due to a change in the environmental single party braunschweig 2015 of a chemical.
The human-toxicological effect factors were derived for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects separately, reflecting the change in lifetime disease incidence due to a change in intake of the substance. Note that we did not select USEtox model Rosenbaum et al. Another practical reason for preferring USES-LCA compared to USEtox is that USEtox does not easily provide the possibility to assess the influence of value choices on the characterisation factors, single party braunschweig 2015, such as the option to derive single party braunschweig 2015 horizon dependent characterisation factors.
The characterisation factor at midpoint level is m 3 of water consumed per m 3 of water extracted. For agriculture, the consumptive part of the withdrawal was estimated with water requirement ratios based on Döll and Siebert For industry and domestic water use, assumptions were made based on Hoekstra and Mekonnen The midpoint characterisation factors in m 2 single party braunschweig 2015 annual crop equivalents refer to the relative species loss caused by a specific land use type annual crops, permanent crops, mosaic agriculture, forestry, urban land, pasture.
Relative species loss was determined by comparing field data on local species richness in specific types of natural and human-made land covers De Baan et al. For land conversion, passive recovery towards a semi- natural, old growth habitat was assumed, based on average recovery times from Curran et al.
The midpoint characterisation factor for mineral resource scarcity is Surplus Ore Potential SOPexpressed as kg Cu-eq. The primary extraction of a mineral resource will lead to an overall decrease in ore grade, meaning the concentration of that resource in ores worldwide, which in turn will increase the amount of ore produced per kilogramme of mineral resource extracted.
The SOP expresses the average extra amount of ore produced in the future caused by the extraction of a mineral resource considering all future production of that mineral resource Vieira et al.
The midpoint indicator for fossil resource use, single party braunschweig 2015, determined as the Fossil Fuel Potential FFP in kg oil-eqsingle party braunschweig 2015, is defined as the ratio between the higher heating value of a fossil resource and the energy content of crude oil Jungbluth and Frischknecht The damage pathways considered to go from the midpoint to the endpoint level in ReCiPe, sorted per environmental problem, are summarised in Table 2 and briefly explained below.
The midpoint-to-endpoint factors are available in spreadsheet format see Electronic Supplementary Material. The first step in the midpoint-to-endpoint model quantifies the link between time-integrated radiative forcing and time-integrated temperature increase for CO 2 Joos et al. Concerning human health damage, De Schryver et al, single party braunschweig 2015.
Telecom Towers Market - Growth, Trends, COVID Impact,
· Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) translates emissions and resource extractions into a limited number of environmental impact scores by means of so-called characterisation factors. There are two mainstream ways to derive characterisation factors, i.e. at midpoint level and at endpoint level. To further progress LCIA method development, we updated the ReCiPe method to its Hauskauf Franken - Alle Angebote für Häuser zum Kauf in der Region hier finden - blogger.com · The global telecom towers market was valued at thousand units in , and it is projected to be thousand units by , registering a CAGR of
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